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The Open Systems Interconnection model OSI model is a conceptual model that describes the universal standard of communication functions of a telecommunication system or computing system, without any regard to the system's underlying internal technology and specific protocol suites. Therefore, the objective is the interoperability of all diverse communication systems containing standard communication protocols , through the encapsulation and de-encapsulation of data, for all networked communication.

In the OSI reference model, the communications between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.

The model partitions the flow of data in a communication system into seven abstraction layers , to describe networked communication from the physical implementation of transmitting bits across a communications medium to the highest-level representation of data of a distributed application.

Each intermediate layer serves a class of functionality to the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. Classes of functionality are realized in all software development through all and any standardized communication protocols. Each layer in the OSI model has its own well-defined functions, and the functions of each layer communicate and interact with the layers immediately above and below it, unless the layer does not have layers below or above.

In either case, each layer of the OSI model has its own well-defined functions that describe the basic applications for communication of all communication protocols. That model combines the physical and data link layers of the OSI model into a single link layer, and has a single application layer for all protocols above the transport layer, as opposed to the separate application, presentation and session layers of the OSI model.

In comparison, several networking models have sought to create an intellectual framework for clarifying networking concepts and activities, [ citation needed ] but none have been as successful as the OSI reference model in becoming the standard model for discussing, teaching, and learning for the networking procedures in the field of Information technology. Additionally, the model allows transparent communication through equivalent exchange of protocol data units PDUs between two parties, through what is known as peer-to-peer networking also known as peer-to-peer communication.

As a result, OSI reference model has not only become an important piece among professionals and non-professionals alike, but also in all networking between one or many parties, due in large part to its commonly accepted user-friendly framework. While attempting to provide a comprehensive description of networking, the model failed to garner reliance during the design of the Internet , which is reflected in the less prescriptive Internet Protocol Suite , principally sponsored under the auspices of the Internet Engineering Task Force IETF.

Public data networks were only just beginning to emerge, and these began to use the X. The Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK circa — identified the need for defining higher level protocols. Beginning in , the International Organization for Standardization ISO conducted a program to develop general standards and methods of networking.

Both bodies developed documents that defined similar networking models. The drafters of the reference model had to contend with many competing priorities and interests.

The rate of technological change made it necessary to define standards that new systems could converge to rather than standardizing procedures after the fact; the reverse of the traditional approach to developing standards.

OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols. The OSI reference model was a major advance in the standardisation of network concepts. It promoted the idea of a consistent model of protocol layers, defining interoperability between network devices and software.

The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Systems. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality.

Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it and provided facilities for use by the layer above it. Not all are free of charge. OSI was an industry effort, attempting to get industry participants to agree on common network standards to provide multi-vendor interoperability. For a period in the late s and early s, engineers, organizations and nations became polarized over the issue of which standard , the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite , would result in the best and most robust computer networks.

The OSI model is still used as a reference for teaching and documentation; [19] however, the OSI protocols originally conceived for the model did not gain popularity.

Some engineers argue the OSI reference model is still relevant to cloud computing. Communication protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions, like the OSI Model, abstractly describe the functionality provided to an N -layer by an N-1 layer, where N is one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

At each level N , two entities at the communicating devices layer N peers exchange protocol data units PDUs by means of a layer N protocol. The recommendation X. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.

The Physical Layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device, such as a network interface controller , Ethernet hub , or network switch , and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals.

Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, modulation scheme, channel access method and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins , voltages , line impedance , cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex , half duplex , and full duplex.

The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network topology. Physical layer specifications are included in the specifications for the ubiquitous Bluetooth , Ethernet , and USB standards.

An example of a less well-known physical layer specification would be for the CAN standard. The Physical Layer also specifies how encoding occurs over a physical signal, such as electrical voltage or a light pulse.

For example, a 1 bit might be represented on a copper wire by the transition from a 0-volt to a 5-volt signal, whereas a 0 bit might be represented by the transition from a 5-volt signal to 0-volt signal. As a result, common problems occurring at the Physical Layer are often related to the incorrect media termination, EMI or noise scrambling, and NICs and hubs that are misconfigured or do not work correctly.

The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer —a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices.

It also defines the protocol for flow control between them. IEEE divides the data link layer into two sublayers: [24]. The Point-to-Point Protocol PPP is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines. Security, specifically authenticated encryption, at this layer can be applied with MACSec. The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring packets from one node to another connected in "different networks".

A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes.

If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.

Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.

These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them. The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source host to a destination host from one application to another across a network, while maintaining the quality-of-service functions.

Transport protocols may be connection-oriented or connectionless. This may require breaking large protocol data units or long data streams into smaller chunks called "segments", since the network layer imposes a maximum packet size called the maximum transmission unit MTU , which depends on the maximum packet size imposed by all data link layers on the network path between the two hosts.

The amount of data in a data segment must be small enough to allow for a network-layer header and a transport-layer header. The process of dividing data into segments is called segmentation ; it is an optional function of the transport layer. The transport layer also controls the reliability of a given link between a source and destination host through flow control, error control, and acknowledgments of sequence and existence.

Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail delivery through the acknowledgment hand-shake system. The transport layer will also provide the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.

Reliability, however, is not a strict requirement within the transport layer. Protocols like UDP, for example, are used in applications that are willing to accept some packet loss, reordering, errors or duplication. Streaming media , real-time multiplayer games and voice over IP VoIP are examples of applications in which loss of packets is not usually a fatal problem. The OSI connection-oriented transport protocol defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features to class 4 TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet.

Class 0 contains no error recovery and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP classes are shown in the following table: [26]. An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent.

A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. While Generic Routing Encapsulation GRE might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint.

It contains characteristics of the transport and presentation layers. The Session Layer creates the setup, controls the connections, and ends the teardown, between two or more computers, which is called a "session". Since DNS and other Name Resolution Protocols operate in this part of the layer, common functions of the Session Layer include user logon establishment , name lookup management , and user logoff termination functions.

Therefore, the Session layer establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. The Session Layer also provides for full-duplex , half-duplex , or simplex operation, and establishes procedures for checkpointing, suspending, restarting, and terminating a session between two related streams of data, such as an audio and a video stream in a web-conferencing application.

Therefore, The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls. The Presentation Layer establishes data formatting and data translation into a format specified by the application layer during the encapsulation of outgoing messages while being passed down the protocol stack , and possibly reversed during the deencapsulation of incoming messages when being passed up the protocol stack.

For this very reason, outgoing messages during encapsulation are converted into a format specified by the application layer, while the conversation for incoming messages during deencapsulation are reversed. The Presentation Layer handles protocol conversion, data encryption, data decryption, data compression, data decompression, incompatibility of data representation between OSs, and graphic commands.

The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application layer accepts, to be sent across a network. Since the presentation layer converts data and graphics into a display format for the Application Layer, the Presentation Layer is sometimes called the syntax layer. The application layer is the layer of the OSI model that is closest to the end user, which means both the OSI Application Layer and the user interact directly with software application that implements a component of communication between the client and server, such as File Explorer and Microsoft Word.

Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model unless they are directly integrated into the Application layer through the functions of communication, as is the case with applications such as Web Browsers and Email Programs. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application.

For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations.

Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself.

   

 

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    Install office first and skype afterwards if it occurs. You can resolve this problem by running the Windows Installer Cleanup utility. Product Documentation.


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